## Exploring the Movement of Peoples in Britain

In this newsletter, we will continue our exploration of the movement of peoples in Britain and delve into the fascinating world of DNA analysis. But before we do that, let's briefly recap the key points we discussed in the last class.

### Recap of the Last Class

In our previous class, we focused on the movement of peoples around Britain and Ireland during the late and sub-Roman periods. We examined archaeological finds and compared them with the continent. We discussed the presence of Jutes, Saxons, and Angles in Britain and their significant impact on the region.

### Archaeological Evidence

Based on primarily archaeological finds, we have a map that illustrates the situation in Kyrgyzstan around AD 500. While we will delve deeper into the political situation later, let's focus on the people's situation for now. The archaeological artifacts suggest a significant English or Anglo-Saxon presence by the end of the 5th century. This presence gradually expanded over the next hundred years.

### Place Name Evidence

To supplement the archaeological evidence, we also have place name maps that provide valuable insights. We have a map showing English place names that refer to Anglo-Saxon pagan practices. These place names primarily focus on the southern part of Britain and to some extent, the eastern side. It indicates the early settlements and the coexistence of pagan Anglo-Saxons and the native population.

On the other hand, we have place names that indicate British or Welsh continuity. These place names have Welsh elements but have been taken over by the English. This suggests the survival of the Britons or Welsh people in these areas and their interaction with the Anglo-Saxon settlers.

### Cultural Interaction

As we move further into the Midlands, we observe a more interactive situation between the Anglo-Saxons and the Britons or Welsh. The Welsh place names become more prominent, indicating a degree of coexistence and cultural activity in these regions.

### Connections with Ireland

Moving on to the western parts of Britain, we see evidence of contact with Gaul and Ireland. Archaeologists have found imported pottery in these areas, suggesting trade or contact with the western parts of Gaul. Additionally, the distribution of Ogham inscriptions, primarily characteristic of Ireland, indicates some kind of settlement or contact with Ireland in parts of Wales and southwest England.

### Brittany and its Connections

Lastly, we explored the settlement of Britons in what is now Brittany in northwest France. Place names with Brittonic elements indicate the migration of British people to this region. The overlap of British place names and Roman survival names suggests a complex cultural region with connections to both the Roman world and Ireland.

### Genetic Evidence

In addition to traditional methods, historians have started using genetic evidence to study the human past. By analyzing current DNA, we can trace our paternal and maternal ancestry and gain insights into our past. Ancient DNA analysis has also provided valuable information, such as the relationship between modern humans and Neanderthals.

### Y Chromosomes and Mitochondrial DNA

Scholars primarily look at Y chromosomes to trace paternal descent and mitochondrial DNA to trace maternal descent. Y chromosomes are passed down from father to son, while mitochondrial DNA is passed down from mother to child. These genetic markers allow us to trace our ancestral lineages and understand the movement of peoples.

## New Insights from Genetic Studies

In our recent class, we explored the findings of several genetic studies related to the movement of peoples in Britain. These studies shed new light on the ancient migrations and interactions that shaped the genetic landscape of the region. Let's dive into the details!

### Paper 1: Y Chromosome Evidence for Anglo-Saxon Mass Migration

The first paper we discussed, published in 2002 by Michael E. Wheel et al., focused on the Y chromosome evidence for Anglo-Saxon mass migration. The study examined Y chromosome samples from various locations in England and Wales, as well as from Frisia and Norway. The researchers found that the English blood samples were closely related to the Frisian ones, suggesting a significant migration from the continent into Britain. The study concluded that this mass migration led to the disappearance of British DNA in certain areas of Britain.

### Paper 2: Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles

The second paper, published the following year, presented a Y chromosome census of the British Isles. This overlapping study further supported the findings of the first paper, providing additional evidence for the Anglo-Saxon migration and its impact on the genetic makeup of the region.

### Paper 3: Evidence for an Apartheid-like Social Structure in Anglo-Saxon England

The third paper, published in 2006 by Mark Thomas and his colleagues, explored the evidence for an apartheid-like social structure in Anglo-Saxon England. This paper offered a different interpretation of the genetic data, suggesting that the distribution of DNA could be explained by a social structure that limited intermarriage between Anglo-Saxon men and British women. According to this interpretation, the Anglo-Saxons were able to spread their Y chromosomes more broadly, leading to the disappearance of British DNA in certain areas.

### Criticisms and Interpretations

While these genetic studies provide valuable insights, they are not without criticisms. Some scholars have pointed out the low number of samples used in the studies, which could limit the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the focus on Y chromosomes neglects the maternal ancestry, which could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the movement of peoples.

Interpreting the genetic data is also a complex task. The patterns observed in the DNA can have multiple interpretations, and it is essential to consider other factors such as social structures and historical context. The second and third papers offer alternative interpretations that highlight the importance of social factors in shaping the genetic landscape.

### Conclusion

As we continue to explore the movement of peoples in Britain, the integration of genetic evidence with other historical and archaeological data provides a more nuanced understanding of the past. While there are still challenges and debates in interpreting the genetic data, these studies open up exciting possibilities for further research. Stay tuned for our next class, where we will delve into the politics of early Anglo-Saxon England and pre-Viking Wales and Scotland.

Stay curious!

*Note: The content of this newsletter is based on the transcript of the video lecture provided by the instructor.*

Exploring the Movement of Peoples in Britain: Genetic Evidence

This lecture dives into a controversial subject when it comes to the study of Ancient and Medieval History and that is Genetics and Migrations. This lecture discusses the Angles,Saxon and Jute Migrations in the Post Roman Period into the British Isles. From place names to paganism this lecture covers a variety of subjects that most viewers will find enjoyable!

Attribution: HIST-416 (2009-2010-Fall): Medieval British History
By: Asst. Prof. David E. Thornton

http://video.bilkent.edu.tr/course_videos.php?courseid=13

Okay, actually, Izzy has just gone out, but I'd like us to start because I've got quite a lot to say or a few maps to look at before we then move on to our DNA articles and so on.

So let's briefly kind of remind ourselves of the point we reached in the last class and then we'll try and follow that through in a kind of logical way.

So we've been looking at the movement of peoples around Britain and to some extent Ireland.

We'll say a bit about those today, more I think on Thursday about next week about Ireland, during the late and sub-Roman periods.

So here is a map which, based on primarily archaeological finds, argues the situation for Kyrgyzstan roundabout AD 500.

We can ignore these kingdom names at the moment, we're going to start dealing with the sort of political situation, if that's the right word, on Thursday, but we're concerned more with people situation here.

But you can see we've got, you may not be able to see, we've got Jutes, Saxons and Angles here.

We talked about those and we tried to compare the archaeological finds from Britain with the continent last week.

And this is the situation in terms of artefacts which archaeologists believe indicate some kind of English or Anglo-Saxon presence on a relatively large scale by the end of the 5th century.

Obviously this grey area will slowly expand during the next hundred years and we'll be starting to look at that on Thursday and we'll look at these names as I said.

What I'm going to do now is have a look a little bit at the other side, what's going on elsewhere.

But before we do that, let's just take a few maps which indicate onomastic place name evidence to supplement this kind of archaeological stuff.

Here is a map showing English place names which refer to Anglo-Saxon pagan practices in 1 way or another.

Now, for example, we talked about the pagan god Woden last week briefly.

And a number of place names preserve the name Woden.

We've got a few here, let me have a look so I can see.

Wedner's Field or something like that here, Weden and so on.

And also the god Thunor, Thor for the Vikings of course, and we see Thunderfield and so on here.

So these place names primarily focusing in the southern part of Britain and to some extent in the eastern side, but moving into the Midlands a little bit over here as well.

And obviously the Anglo-Saxons, again we'll talk about this in detail next time, but the Anglo-Saxons were pagan primarily when they arrived in Britain but during the 6th and into the 7th century we see the conversion of different Anglo-Saxon groups' kingdoms to Christianity.

So where we see a name which has a pagan significance, it indicates not necessarily the beginning but relatively early settlement.

These are the areas where the pagan Anglo-Saxons were occupying an area or taking over a settlement or setting up a new settlement and things like that.

And this, more or less, but to a lesser extent, reflects the same map that we looked at before.

On the other hand, a different place name map, which I don't know how clear that is for you over there again, but these are place names which indicate some degree of British or Welsh continuity.

They indicate that people who were regarded as Britons or Welsh by the English were surviving.

So they are place names which either have Welsh elements in but the English have taken over the name.

So I think this 1 here is pen, which is the modern Welsh word with 1 N for head, for example.

Now, 1 scenario, 1 very common scenario for the Anglo-Saxon movement into Britain was that it was a fairly large-scale and rather violent event, so that the Anglo-Saxons came in and more or less killed the native Britons or pushed them further westwards into Wales and Cornwall and so on, and then took over the main part of what became therefore England.

This kind of evidence suggests perhaps otherwise, that other patterns were going on.

If you have places, this 1 is called Comberton.

Let me write that 1 up because you can't see it very well.

But the Comberbid is related to, well, the modern Welsh word for a Welshman.

So this suggests, if we interpret it correctly, that this was a settlement in which some Britons or Welsh, if we want to call them, were living at the time when the English arrived.

And they were not obviously completely wiped out in that sense.

And then somewhere with the name Pen, which actually has a Welsh name, this is a Welsh word, OK.

Now if you're all the Welsh and I come marching in Anglo-Saxon David and kill you all and then say OK, let's live here, what's this place called?

But you're all dead, so you can't tell me what it's called, so we give it an English name.

But in this case, there must have been at least 1 Briton alive, maybe on a gasping breath to say, and then he dies.

But more likely, There was some degree of cultural activity, maybe even a large British-speaking population continued there.

They kept their own place name, it wasn't replaced by an English 1.

So we get a degree of co-existence or whatever, up to a point.

And this is primarily in the Midlands, these place names, mostly in the Midlands of England, not so much in the West, in the South and the East, in the Midlands.

So as we move to the Midlands, as the English kind of move into this area, okay, we get more and more of these Welsh place names, suggesting at least in the central parts we get more of an interaction, okay, perhaps not so much in these areas but certainly around here we get a more interactive situation emerging.

Okay, another map, this time showing the western parts of Britain primarily, okay.

The dots, lobs, show sites where archaeologists have found what they call imported pottery, and that is things made from clay, pots of 1 sort or another, ceramics, which they also find in what is now France, in western Gaul.

And they think they've been brought into these western parts of Britain and Ireland by traders or by contact with Gaul.

So there's nothing much going on here in what's becoming England, but there's a contact this way round with the continent, with the western parts of Gaul and so on.

And this shows a kind of cultural region.

We sometimes call this area the Irish Seen province, whatever.

And the shaded areas, the slash lines, indicate the distribution of a certain kind of inscription, which means digging words into, cutting words, engraving words into stone, called Ogham, okay, or Ogham, sometimes spelt without the H, which is primarily characteristic of Ireland, okay, so it's something characteristic of parts of Ireland.

Ogham inscriptions may involve ordinary Latin or Latin alphabet writing, but down the edge of a large stone, the corner bit, they would cut lines, okay, some on this side, some on that side, some crossing over and so on, and some straight, some slanting, and they all had a phonetic value, OK?

This was something which was developed in Ireland, so it's a kind of inscription.

Perhaps they suggest the idea was developed in Ireland, but the idea of writing they'd copied from something going on in Britain and so on, but it's characteristic originally of Ireland.

So when we see Ogham inscriptions like this 1 in parts of Wales or even in parts of southwest England, it suggests some kind of contact with Ireland or even some settlement, okay, in many of the names, some of the names are even Irish names, most of them over here in Ireland in the southern parts and to some extent further north, okay.

Now we have documentary references, small little references, 1 that suggests people called the Daishi who lived in County Waterford, settled in the area which now becomes Doved in south-west Wales, and another reference to some kind of Irish settlement in southwest England as well.

The big movement of Irish people was into the Scottish Isles and ultimately Scotland.

I'm going to start talking about that in our next topic.

There's no people speaking Irish in these areas anymore.

They've become assimilated with the British or Welsh population.

But the strong evidence that this kind of movement was not insignificant.

The little round dots are the Ogham inscriptions and the little, they're black to you, but they're little triangle shapes, are Welsh place names that have an Irish element, so they suggest Irish settlers bringing their language in.

Again, primarily focused in the southern and western regions, a little bit dotted up here in Anglesey, but primarily down here.

This is where we get documentary evidence for these things.

So a strong set of patterns and a little bit of the inscriptions of what becomes Brecon over there.

So we see movements of people, some of them having a big impact, the creation of England by the Anglo-Saxons, the creation of what eventually becomes Scotland by the Irish, Scotty in the north.

But even here we see movements of people going on in, presumably in fairly significant degree, but ultimately becoming assimilated with the local population and fading out.

Our example of the inscription here, let's just have a quick look at this, okay, pull it down a bit so we can see the whole thing.

What conclusions do you think we can draw?

If I just give you this, what ideas might we get from this stone?

This is a memoria, so It's a commemoration, it's remembering someone, it's remembering vōte pōr, vōte pōr aegis, protectic, it's a bad Latin, protector is the protector, some kind of leader, okay, called vōte pōr or whatever.

And here we, when we transcribe the Ogham, we get more or less the same name, but with a, remember, Q Celtic, P Celtic, OK, so here this is Ffáilte Cór Igas in the Archaic Irish, but essentially the same name.

We think there may be other references, at least 1 other, 2 other references to this guy, but we'll talk about him next time.

People argue about whether it's the same person or not.

But just on the face of it, what can we say about this man who was possibly buried under or near this stone, or is being at least remembered in this stone that was set up in South West Wales.

What comments can we draw from this, culturally, politically or of any sort?

Yeah, if he was just some peasant farmer then he wouldn't probably have a memorial stone set up, so he's some kind of big guy, big wig in what's now Doved at that time.

The fact that we've got the sort of pseudo-Latin and the Ogham archaic Irish indicates, as we said, that he may have Irish ancestry.

People who are ruling the city, or I don't know, but there's Latin in the moment.

Right, which means Rome, which means some kind of continuity with the Roman world, and he's calling himself Protector, he's got a Latin title, so he saw himself as somehow perhaps even as a Roman in a strange way.

But his stone also had the Irish inscription.

This was a very mixed kind of population that both looked to the Roman world but also recognised the importance of the Irish.

Perhaps he had dual ancestry or something, or at least the people he ruled over were significantly Irish as well, that they had to have the Ogham there.

This guy or his people were Christian in some kind of a way, okay, part of the Christian world, the Roman world therefore, though of course the spread of Christianity in Ireland, which had never been part of the Roman Empire, was kind of going on at this point perhaps or was quite well established at this point.

But Ogham inscriptions, very early ones, are pagan in nature.

So again, the duality between what we might call British, Roman, Christian, and then the Irish element set up here and so on.

Like the barbarian Christians that accepted it were British Christians Aryan?

There were, no, I mean, he would have been, well, he would have been Celtic Christian, there's all sorts of arguments about what that is.

The Aryan thing, whether it was like with the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths and so on.

We had our own heresies like the Pelagian heresy and so on in the late Roman world.

But Arianism I don't think was such a big deal in late Roman Britain, but I'm sure there were Arians there.

But it's not an issue that we talk about when we get to this level.

And exactly the finer subtleties of theological debate are not always very clear from something like this.

Wasn't the circle cross special for Ireland?

If you actually have a nice memorial where you want to have a, actually carve a cross, physically the stone won't be so strong so you might often have a kind of wheel shape like this to support the cross.

So I don't know whether that, that's an interesting point, I would have to think about that, whether this is a common symbol which reflects attempts to make, in the later period at least, to have proper crosses or not.

I'll have to think about that so I can't answer your question.

Okay, so that's 1 example of the kind of person we're dealing with in this kind of dark period, okay?

A mixture of kind of Christian and possibly pagan, of settled and native, Roman and non-Roman and all these kind of things.

The last little couple of maps I want to show before we look at our genetic stuff is stuff is, get them the right way around, to relating to what is now Brittany in northwest France.

What had been the Roman province of Armourica is now to a large extent called Brittany because it was settled by people from Britain, British people.

I've kind of coloured over this to make patterns more clear and for various reasons, but this is a map showing various kinds of place names which are regarded as containing pre-Celtic, Brittonic elements in Brittany.

And then the lines indicate the expected extent of Breton during the later period and so on.

So these are the areas that indicate some kind of settlement in the form of names, place names with a British element.

People coming from southwest and perhaps southern Britain and settling in these areas.

The same map but with different things indicated is the green area deliberately here.

These are place name elements, Ack and so on, containing possibly older Roman elements in their names, going back to the Roman period.

And If we try and superimpose the 2 maps on each other, which may, oops, touched it.

We can see that the red areas are kind of primarily here with a bit of overlap and the green is down here as well.

They're not entirely mutually exclusive but there is a certain overlap up this way as well.

But primarily we see the British place names further west and to some extent in the north, and the Roman survival names further south and east to a large extent, no not exclusively.

So we can see here again the arrival of Bretons, in some areas presumably Britons becoming Bretons, large scale settlement.

The further west, the further east we go and south, perhaps the population continuing more from the previous late Roman population but interacting with the newcomers as well.

These people, we can either see them as kind of escaping from southern Britain in the wake of the arrival of the English or else, I mean, Procopius, the Greek writer, says it was just overpopulation.

Too many people in Britain, so people were sailing across the sea to find land where they could settle and they ended up in what is now Amorica, okay.

Presumably each individual settler had his or her own reasons for doing this.

A final map relating to Brittany but showing again this western areas here.

These are what are called Welsh Peregrini.

They are Welsh saints, holy men, Christian saints from Wales, who have effectively moved around.

OK, some of them are said to have settled in Brittany, but many of them, their cult, the worship of these people, has moved.

And these are all churches which at an early date were dedicated, were named to 1 of these saints.

We can see in Wales they're coming from, again from the Devon area, primarily in the south, okay.

We found clusters of them in what's now England, but we also found a lot of them again in the northern part of Brittany.

If you're moving, you take your saints and your religious life with you, but it also may indicate a continued connection between these areas.

It wasn't just people fleeing from here, but there was connection with the Britons in Brittany, into southern Britain and even into Wales.

There's a kind of cultural region building up during this dark period of our time.

This has all been quite quick so we've got 20 minutes or so on our texts.

We'll look at Scotland and Ireland in the next few weeks, because I haven't covered them in detail yet, but let's take out the 3 articles I asked you to look at and as a kind of preface to this I've kind of prefaced this.

Okay, as I've mentioned on more than 1 occasion in the past few weeks, in addition to the traditional ways of studying the past, Chokyasha, historians using written documents, but also, particularly for the Middle Ages, historians using archaeological place name and other linguistic evidence to try and understand what's going on.

For the past decade or so, there's been a growing use of genetic evidence to study the human past.

All of us in this room are kind of living history.

We're carrying the historical imprint of our paternal and maternal ancestors in our genes.

Similarly, we can study the past by using non-human organic organisms.

Organic organisms, that's not a good phrase.

But we can study the past in the same way looking at the genes of dogs or plants as well that are existing now.

And we can also study the past using ancient DNA sometimes called a DNA with a little a there which is the DNA of human and non-human organisms dug up by archaeologists.

And then, if they're lucky, they can extract some genetic information from these finds.

That's a rather more difficult thing to do.

What we're going to look at today is primarily using the current DNA rather than the ancient DNA, but that's rather interesting as well.

I mean we now know, for example, that modern humans are not descended directly from Neanderthals.

We've analysed the DNA of Neanderthal remains and we can see that we are kind of cousins but we're not linearly related and things like that.

So that's where ancient DNA obviously can be quite important.

The DNA which scholars look at when they analyze our blood or whatever, there are the chromosomes, okay, now they are nuclear DNA, They're in the nucleus of cells, okay?

And there are 23 pairs of chromosomes called autosomes and then there's 1 pair of sex chromosomes which are the Y X and Y okay, which you all know about from biology and things like that, okay?

In addition we can study mitochondrial DNA, sometimes called MTDNA or MDNA.

Anyone know what mitochondrial DNA is, where it exists in the cells or anything.

That's here, it's in the outside part of the cell, not the nucleus, it's outside, okay, and it's concerned with the energy of cells and things like that.

It may even originally think have come from outside the original organisms that make up a cell or whatever.

But there's a big difference between using the chromosomes and the microchondrial DNA.

Now primarily as we've seen here, scholars look at the Y chromosomes of individuals because when we inherit our chromosomes we take 1 from each parent obviously to make up the pair, okay, We definitely get an X from our mother.

So each 1 of us has got 1 of our mother's X's, but we don't know which 1, okay?

Because she's got it from her different parents.

And if you're me, you get your Y from your father.

But if you're Azra, you get the other X from your father, which makes you female.

So the Y is the particularly stable 1, because my Y chromosome I've taken from my father and there's no ambiguity of that and my father got it from his father and his father got it from his and in theory our Y chromosome unless we get significant mutation goes back generations and generations It's the same for all the guys in the room.

And I'm sorry girls, it's more difficult with Xs.

But we can definitely say the guys get their X, their Y chromosome from their father, and that can be plotted then, okay?

Mitochondrial DNA, We've all got mitochondrial DNA from our mothers, okay?

When the egg is fertilized in the mother's womb and so on, During that process of fertilization, the mitochondrial DNA in the sperm is destroyed.

So unfortunately, the guy's mitochondrial DNA goes, and only the mother's mitochondrial DNA is passed on to what's going to become the baby.

So each and every 1 of us has lost our father's MT DNA, but kept our mothers.

So just as Y chromosome, but just for guys, can be used to trace things back paternally, for each and every 1 of us, not just ladies, all of us, our mitochondrial DNA traces our maternal descent from me to my mum to her mum and back and things like that.

So we've got these 2 kinds of DNA which scholars look at.

I'll just add 1 other brief comment because it's quite interesting.

There is a kind of genetic virus which exists in urine, in our urine, in our bodies, okay.

It's a kind of what's called a pallioma virus and it's the human 1 of that.

It doesn't cause a disease in most people but majority of us have carrying it, it's a kind of non deadly virus that we have, okay, And it's usually passed not genetically between people, but it's given between people who live closely together.

So families or close tribes will usually have the same form of this virus which exists in their urine and then it is excreted and so on.

And there's been some studies, but not for our British history, that's tried to analyse human movement not just by our own DNA but also by looking at this genetic virus which most of us carry as well.

Okay but that's fairly early on I've come across a few studies on the web about that but not relating to British history whatsoever.

Y chromosome evidence for Anglo-Saxon mass migration, published in 2002 I think, yes.

The following year an overlapping group, but slightly different group, published a Y chromosome consensus, census sorry, of the British Isles.

And then Slightly later, 2006, Mark Thomas, who's an author of both those papers and a couple of other guys, but not, 1 of them is not a geneticist, published evidence for an apartheid-like social structure in Anglo-Saxon England.

So this isn't new research, but it's new interpretation.

Chronologically, we'll call this 1 paper 1.

And the evidence for apartheid-like social structure, we can call that 3, okay, just to make it a bit easier for ourselves to look at these things.

So, can someone tell me primarily what is the main argument of paper number 1, okay, white chromosome evidence for Anglo-Saxon mass migration.

British people and the Norway people are similar to each other or Friesland.

Friesland, yes, yeah, let's not say Norway.

Okay, similar to each other, but not in Wales, because it seems, it suggests that there is an Eastern movement to the Friesland.

And Friesland's people moved from Eastern to Britain.

So there were Britons who moved out to Wales So there were 3 tones who move out the whales who want to, who don't want to mix them up, mix with them

And evidence of the Anglo-Saxon migration.

It's taken as evidence of Anglo-Saxon migration.

It's that area a little bit to the west of Germany and Denmark, into Netherlands, where I said the Frisians speak the language closest to what is now English.

So they've picked some guys off the streets in Frisia and taken their blood.

They've also taken blood from these places.

Taken from these places across, more or less, a line across Britain.

So 5 in England and then 2 in different parts of Wales.

And they've tried to draw conclusions about the medieval past based upon the DNA of these, and I hope that the 7 men are still living.

And they also took some samples from Norway because, as we shall discuss in a few weeks' time, there was a certain amount of Viking Norwegian Scandinavian presence in later England as well, a little bit later on, but they're concerned here primarily with the Anglo-Saxons.

And as Fatih said, they found that the English blood samples were very close to the Frisian ones somewhere here, whereas the 2 Welsh ones were very different, and all were a bit different from what was going on in Norway.

And I think they also suggest that these 2 Welsh ones are a bit different from each other as well.

But they're definitely kind of different from these.

And they conclude, therefore, their conclusion is that this proves that there was what they're calling mass migration, large scale migration from the continent into Britain.

People were bringing their genes into, at least into these areas, and they're presuming into other areas as well, on such a large scale that what had been British DNA surviving possibly in this part of Britain had disappeared.

It was wiped out as these people were either killed or as Fatih says pushed westwards into Wales and so on.

Any, yeah, I was going to say, any questions or problems with this?

For the Scandinavian people, isn't this area of Scotland, as the better conditions and being appropriate, isn't it more suitable than the South, why they migrate to the South?

See all Study of Antiquity and the Middle Ages transcripts on Youtube

Genetics and the Anglo-Saxon Migrations