The number 37 is on your mind more than you think. Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial and get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

Huge thanks to Tom Magliery for sharing his 37 collection with us. Support http://thirty-seven.org by sharing your own 37 sightings to tom@thirty-seven.org!
Thanks to Dr. Todd Landman, the Academic Magician, for sharing his footage of the 37 Force. - https://www.todd-landman.com/ 

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters! Join the community to help us keep our videos free, forever: https://ve42.co/PatreonDE

Sam Lutfi, Lee Redden, Juan Benet, Richard Sundvall, Paul Peijzel, Gnare, Michael Krugman, Meekay, Ubiquity Ventures, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Bill Linder, Evgeny Skvortsov, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, john kiehl, Blake Byers, Stephen Wilcox, John H. Austin, Jr., Josh Hibschman, TTST, Orlando Bassotto, Anton Ragin, David Johnston, KeyWestr, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Chris Harper, Adam Foreman, Max Paladino, Balkrishna Heroor, I. H., Garrett Mueller, Bertrand Serlet, Kyi, wolfee, Matthias Wrobel

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically - https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

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References:
Simon, W. E. (1972). “Blue Seven Phenomenon” in Elementary and Jr. High Children. Psychological Reports - https://ve42.co/Simon1972
Trueman, J. (1979). Existence & Robustness of Blue Seven Phenomena. The Journal of General Psychology - https://ve42.co/Trueman1979
Saito, M. (1999). “Blue and Seven Phenomena” in Japanese Students. Perceptual & Motor Skills - https://ve42.co/Saito1999
Philbrick, J. L. (1976). Blue seven in East Africa: Preliminary report. Perceptual & Motor Skills - https://ve42.co/Philbrick1976
Hargreaves, S. (2009). The psychology of randomness. - https://ve42.co/Hargreaves2009 
The 37 Force via The Magician’s Forum - https://ve42.co/37Force1
Fulves, K. (1979) Self-Working Mental Magic. Dover Publications, Inc. - https://ve42.co/Fulves1979 
Random numbers via The Jargon File at catb.org - https://ve42.co/Jargon
Random Number Survey by MahoganyForest via Reddit - https://ve42.co/RedditRndm
Prime number theorem via Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiPNT
Grossack, C. (2023). A truly incredible fact about the number 37. Grossack.site - https://ve42.co/Grossack2023
Least prime factor of n via oeis.org - https://ve42.co/LeastPrime
Fry, H. (2017). When should you settle down? ideas.ted.com - https://ve42.co/Fry2017
Choosing Toilets by Numberphile - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XIOoCKO-ybQ
Seaton, R. (2014). The Secretary Problem Explained: Dating Mathematically. rs.io - https://ve42.co/Seaton2014

Images & Video:
Just 37 by Tom Magliery - https://ve42.co/Just37
R4000 Processor via Molecular Expressions - https://ve42.co/micro37
The “37” Cluster by Noel Carboni - https://ve42.co/NGC2169
Charles Fleischer via Wikimedia - https://ve42.co/Fleischer

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Directed by Emily Zhang
Written by Emily Zhang and Derek Muller
Edited by Peter Nelson
Asst edited by Luke Molloy
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, and Leigh Williamson
Illustrated by Jakub Misiek
Filmed by Emily Zhang, Casper Mebius, Derek Muller, Michael Cimpher, and David Szasz
Additional research by Gregor Čavlović
Produced by Emily Zhang, Giovanna Utichi, Han Evans, and Emily Taylor

Thumbnail contributions by Ignat Berbeci, Ren Hurley, and Peter Sheppard
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Storyblocks
Music from Epidemic Sound

Why is this number everywhere?

The blue LED was supposed to be impossible—until a young engineer proposed a moonshot idea. Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically - https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

Huge thanks to the UC Santa Barbara Materials Dept (https://ssleec.ucsb.edu/) for taking us around.
Thanks to Álvaro Bermejillo Seco for reviewing the science.
Thanks to these especially helpful sources:
Nobel Prize Biography - Shuji Nakamura - https://ve42.co/NakamuraNobel 
Johnstone, B. (2015). Brilliant!. Prometheus Books. - https://ve42.co/Johnstone2015 
Nakamura, S., Pearton, S., & Fasol, G. (2010). The Blue Laser Diode: The Complete Story. Springer. - https://ve42.co/Nakamura2010 

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References:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O8M2z2hIbag
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TGUteH93xNo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idwKHQEw78g
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoTALRhAqWc
Touchstone, L. A. (2022). Nick Holonyak Jr. University of Illinois. - https://ve42.co/Touchstone2022 
Perry, T. S. (1995). The Unsung Inventor. IEEE Spectrum. - https://ve42.co/Perry1995 
Chabay, R. & Sherwood, B. (2011). Matter & interactions (4th ed.), S2: Semiconductors. Wiley. - https://ve42.co/ChabaySherwood
How MOCVD Works via Aixtron - https://ve42.co/MOCVD 
Vangala, S. R., et al. (2019). Epitaxial growth of ZnSe on GaAs. Journal of Crystal Growth. - https://ve42.co/Vangala2019 
Nakamura, S. (1991). GaN Growth Using GaN Buffer Layer. JJAP. - https://ve42.co/Nakamura3rd1991 
Amano, H., et al. (1989). P-Type Conduction in Mg-Doped GaN w/ LEEBI. JJAP. - https://ve42.co/Amano1989 
Huang, M., et al. (2021). Defects in Mg–H‐Codoped GaN. Physica Status Solidi. - https://ve42.co/Huang2021 
Schubert, E. F. (2006). Light Emitting Diodes, Ch 4: LED basics. Cambridge University Press. - https://ve42.co/RPI-LEDs
Kitada, C. (2001). Blue About Japan. Japan Inc. - https://ve42.co/Kitada2001 
Whitaker, T. (2002). Nakamura loses Nichia patent battle. Optics.org. - https://ve42.co/NichiaSales3 
Pirates Osaka. (2014). Nakamura awarded Nobel Prize in Physics. Hatena Blog. - https://ve42.co/NichiaSales1 
Growth Bozu via Twitter. - https://ve42.co/NichiaSales2 
Rose, J. (2014). Blue LEDs – Filling the world with new light. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. - https://ve42.co/Rose2014 
Pattison, P. M., et al. (2017). LED lighting efficacy. Comptes Rendus Physique. - https://ve42.co/Pattison2017 
Electricity pricing via EIA - https://ve42.co/ElectricityPricing
Lane, K., et al. (2023). Lighting. IEA. - https://ve42.co/LightingIEA 
LED Footprint via The Climate Group - https://ve42.co/ClimateGroupLED 
Nichia’s History via Nichia - https://ve42.co/NichiaHistory 
Shuji Nakamura via Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/NakamuraWiki 

Images & Video:
Lighting the World via UCTVInsight on YouTube - https://ve42.co/UCTVep2 & https://ve42.co/UCTVep3 
Palo Alto Times 1971 Article via Newspapers.com - https://ve42.co/Newspapers 
Nick Holonyak, Jr. and the LED via UIUC on YouTube - https://ve42.co/HolonyakIllinois 
The Original Blue LED via Science History Institute on YouTube - https://ve42.co/OGBlueLED 
Maxfield, M. (2022). Compound Semiconductors. EE Journal. - https://ve42.co/Maxfield2022
M. Stutzmann, et al. (2001). Playing with Polarity. pss (b). - https://ve42.co/Stutzman2001  
Isamu Akasaki in 1995 via Andrey Nikolaev on YouTube - https://ve42.co/AsakiNikolaev 
Pioneer TX-610 Stereo Tuner via Ian Marino on YouTube - https://ve42.co/StereoMarino 
Shuji Nakamura via EPO on YouTube - https://ve42.co/NakamuraEPO
Nichia Campus via Nichia on LinkedIn - https://ve42.co/NichiaHQ
Nichia via TDElektronik on YouTube - https://ve42.co/NichiaTDE 
Violeds Sterilization of COVID-19 via Seoul Viosys - https://ve42.co/SterilizationUV  

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Chris Harper, Max Paladino, Balkrishna Heroor, Adam Foreman, Orlando Bassotto, Tj Steyn, meg noah, KeyWestr, TTST, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, 
Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, David Johnston, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi

▀▀▀
Directed by Emily Zhang
Written by Emily Zhang, Ricky Nathvani, and Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Illustrated by Jakub Misiek
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Mike Radjabov, David Szakaly, Ivy Tello, and Alondra Vitae
Filmed by Derek Muller, Raquel Nuno, and Trenton Oliver
Additional research by Gregor Čavlović
Produced by Emily Zhang, Han Evans, Gregor Čavlović, and Derek Muller

Thumbnail by Ren Hurley
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound

Why It Was Almost Impossible to Make the Blue LED

This is a video about the most famous problem in Game Theory, the Prisoner’s Dilemma. Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium  to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV   


▀▀▀
A massive thank you to Prof. Robert Axelrod and Prof. Steven Strogatz for their expertise and time. 

To read more about Prof. Axelrod’s Passion for Cooperation visit: https://ve42.co/Axelrod2023 

A massive thanks to the wonderful Nicky Case. Nicky’s “The Evolution of Trust” game was a huge inspiration for this video. We highly recommend you play this excellent game yourself, over at: https://ncase.me/trust/ 

A huge thank you to those who helped us understand and fact check different parts of this topic - Dr. Christian Hilbe, Dr. Vincent Knight, Dr. Jelena Grujic, Prof. Andreas Diekmann, and Dr. Alexander Stewart.

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References:
Excellent game on the evolution of trust by Nicky Case - https://ve42.co/Case2023  
Summary of Axelrod’s work by This Place - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BOvAbjfJ0x0 
How to outsmart the Prisoner’s Dilemma by TED-Ed - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=emyi4z-O0ls&pp=ygUScHJpc29uZXIncyBkaWxlbW1h 
Tit for Tat by radiolab - https://ve42.co/T4T   
The Golden Rule by radiolab - https://ve42.co/GoldenRule   
Axelrod, R. (1984). The Evolution of Cooperation.
Dawkins, R. (2016). The selfish gene. Oxford university press.
Poundstone, W. (1992). Prisoner's Dilemma. William Poundstone.
Nowak, M. A., & Highfield, R. (2011). Supercooperators. Edinburgh: Canongate.
Binmore, K. (2007). Game theory: a very short introduction. OUP Oxford.
Northrup, L. & Rock, D. (1966). The Detection of Joe I. - https://ve42.co/JOE1 
Prisoner’s dilemma, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiPD
Prisoner’s Dilemma, Stanford -  https://ve42.co/StanfordPD 
Flood, M. M. (1952). Some experimental games. - https://ve42.co/Flood1952 
Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiNWS 
Goodwin, I. (1998). The Price of Victory in Cold War - https://ve42.co/Goodwin1998 
Cold war: How it happened. - https://ve42.co/CW2014 
Axelrod, R. (1980). Effective choice in the prisoner's dilemma. Journal of conflict resolution, 24(1), 3-25. - https://ve42.co/Axelrod1980a 
Axelrod, R. (1980). More effective choice in the prisoner's dilemma. Journal of conflict resolution, 24(3), 379-403. - https://ve42.co/Axelrod1980b 
Axelrod, R., & Hamilton, W. D. (1981). The evolution of cooperation. science, 211(4489), 1390-1396. https://ve42.co/Axelrod1981 
Stanislav Petrov, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiSP 
Wu, J., & Axelrod, R. (1995). How to cope with noise in the iterated prisoner's dilemma. Journal of Conflict resolution, 39(1), 183-189. - https://ve42.co/Wu1995 
INF Treaty - https://ve42.co/INF 
START Treaties - https://ve42.co/START 
START I, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiSTART 


Images & Video:
RAND Historical images via rand.org - https://ve42.co/RAND  
Golden Balls - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S0qjK3TWZE8
Zotti, G., et al. (2021). The Simulated Sky: Stellarium for Cultural Astronomy Research - https://ve42.co/Stellarium  
Newspapers from 1980s via Newspapers.com  – https://ve42.co/Newspapers  
Decommisioned nuke image via The Moscow Times - https://ve42.co/MT2012 
Soviet inspection image via Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists - https://ve42.co/Krzyzaniak2019  
Decommissioning nuclear weapon via ShareAmerica - https://ve42.co/Kaufman2014 


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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, Jesse Brandsoy, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mario Bottion, Max Maladino, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures


▀▀▀
Directed by Casper Mebius
Written by Casper Mebius, Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Ashley Hamer
Additional research and fact checking by Gregor Čavlović and Will Wood
Edited by Peter Nelson
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello and Alondra Vitae
Illustrations by Jakub Misiek
Filmed by Derek Muller
Produced by Casper Mebius, Derek Muller, Gregor Čavlović and Han Evans

Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Peter Sheppard

What Game Theory Reveals About Life, The Universe, and Everything

How to lead a happier, healthier and longer life. Check out our sponsor: https://betterhelp.com/veritasium to get matched with a professional therapist who will listen and help.

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A huge thanks to Prof. Robert Waldinger for all his help with this video. 

To learn more about what makes for a good life, visit: https://the-good-life-book.com/ and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KkKuTCFvzI&pp=ygUJd2FsZGluZ2Vy 

A special thanks to Prof. Julianne Holt-Lunstad for her expert advice on the importance of social connections and the detrimental effects of loneliness and social isolation.

▀▀▀
Additional Videos:
Family Reacts to Winning CA$1 Million Lotto, NowThisNews via YouTube - https://ve42.co/CA1Lottery  

Woman claims to be $1 billion Powerball winner, KTLA 5 via YouTube - https://ve42.co/1BilLottery  

Old Lottery Winner Meets Young Lottery Winner | The Gap, LADbible TV via YouTube - https://ve42.co/LADBibleLottery  

Why eyewitnesses get it wrong - Scott Fraser, TED-Ed via Youtube - https://ve42.co/TEDFraser  

Surgeon General discusses health risks of loneliness and steps to help connect with others, PBS NewsHour via YouTube - https://ve42.co/PBS-SG  

▀▀▀
References:
Waldinger, R., & Schulz, M. (2023). The Good Life: Lessons from the World's Longest Scientific Study of Happiness. Simon and Schuster.

Lindqvist et al. (2020). Long-run effects of lottery wealth on psychological well-being. The Review of Economic Studies. - https://ve42.co/Lindqvist2020 

Wen et al. (2011). Minimum amount of physical activity for reduced mortality and extended life expectancy: a prospective cohort study. The lancet. - https://ve42.co/Wen2011 

Nocon et al. (2008). Association of physical activity with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Preventive Cardiology. - https://ve42.co/Nocon2008  

Blondell et al. (2014). Does physical activity prevent cognitive decline and dementia?: A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. BMC public health. - https://ve42.co/Blondell2014 

Office of the Surgeon General. (2023). Our Epidemic of Loneliness and Isolation: The US Surgeon General’s Advisory on the Healing Effects of Social Connection and Community. - https://ve42.co/LonelinessEpidemic  

Holt-Lunstad et al. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: a meta-analytic review. PLoS medicine. - https://ve42.co/Holt-Lunstad2010  

Valtorta et al. (2016). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for coronary heart disease and stroke: systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal observational studies. Heart. - 
https://ve42.co/Valtorta2016  

Shovestul et al. (2020). Risk factors for loneliness: The high relative importance of age versus other factors. PloS one. - https://ve42.co/Shovestul2020  

Donovan et al. (2017). Loneliness, depression and cognitive function in older US adults. International journal of geriatric psychiatry. - https://ve42.co/Donovan2017 

Lara et al. (2019). Does loneliness contribute to mild cognitive impairment and dementia? A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Ageing research reviews. - https://ve42.co/Lara2019  

Holt-Lunstad et al. (2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on psychological science. - https://ve42.co/Holt-Lunstad2015  

McIntyre et al. (2015). Compulsive Internet use and relations between social connectedness, and introversion. Computers in Human Behavior. - https://ve42.co/McIntyre2015 

Kahneman & Deaton. (2010). High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well-being. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences. - https://ve42.co/Kahneman2010 

Killingsworth. (2021). Experienced well-being rises with income, even above $75,000 per year. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. - https://ve42.co/Killingsworth2021 

Killingsworth et al. (2023). Income and emotional well-being: A conflict resolved. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. - https://ve42.co/Killingsworth2023  

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Chris Harper, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Max Paladino, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

▀▀▀
Directed by Casper Mebius
Written by Casper Mebius, Petr Lebedev, and Derek Muller
Edited by Peter Nelson
Animated by Fabio Albertelli and Ivy Tello
Filmed by Derek Muller, Emily Zhang, and Zyan Treadwell
Produced by Casper Mebius, Petr Lebedev, Han Evans, and Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Storyblocks
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ren Hurley

What The Longest-Running Study on Happiness Reveals

Discover strange new universes that turn up at the core of Einstein’s General Relativity. Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium  to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV  

If you want to play around in hyperbolic space then check out: https://3-dimensional.space/geometries/hyp/ 

▀▀▀
A massive thank you to Prof. Alex Kontorovich for all his help with this video.

A huge thank you to Prof. Geraint Lewis and Dr. Ashmeet Singh for helping us understand the applications of Non-Euclidean geometry in astronomy/cosmology.

Lastly, a big thank you to Dr. Henry Segerman and Dr. Rémi Coulon for helping us visualize what it’s like to be inside hyperbolic space and helping us understand hyperbolic geometry.

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Images:
Euclid via Science Museum Group - https://ve42.co/Euclid

Geodesy survey via ams - https://ve42.co/Geodesy

John Wheeler via NAS Online - https://ve42.co/Wheeler

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References:
Dunham, W. (1991). Journey through Genius: Great Theorems of Mathematics. John Wiley & Sons.

Bonola, R. (1955). Non-Euclidean geometry: A critical and historical study of its development. Courier Corporation.

Library of Congress. (n.d.). The Library of Congress. - https://ve42.co/LibofCongress
 
Euclid’s Elements, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/Elements

The History of Non-Euclidean Geometry, Extra History via YouTube - https://ve42.co/ExtraHistory

We (could) live on a 4D Pringle - Physics for the Birds via YouTube - https://ve42.co/4DPringle

Parallel Postulate, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/Parallel

Prékopa, A., & Molnár, E. (Eds.). (2006). Non-euclidean geometries: János Bolyai memorial volume (Vol. 581). Springer Science & Business Media. 

St Andrews, University of. (n.d.). Bolyai. MacTutor History of Mathematics.  - https://ve42.co/Bolyai

Bolyai, J. (1896). The Science Absolute of Space.. (Vol. 3). The Neomon.

Gauss, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/Gauss
 
Landvermessung, D. Z. (1929). Abhandlungen ueber Gauss' wissenschaftliche Taetigkeit auf den Gebieten der Geodaesie, Physik und Astronomie Bd. 11, Abt.  - https://ve42.co/Landvermessung

Nikolai Lobachevsky, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/Lobachevsky

Lobachevskiĭ, N. I. (1891). Geometrical researches on the theory of parallels. University of Texas. 

A Problem with the Parallel Postulate, Numberphile via YouTube - https://ve42.co/NumberphileParallel

Riemann, B. (2016). On the hypotheses which lie at the bases of geometry. Birkhäuser. - https://ve42.co/Riemann

Einstein, A. (1905). On the electrodynamics of moving bodies. Annalen der physik, 17(10), 891-921. - https://ve42.co/Einstein1905

Why Gravity is NOT a Force, Veritasium via YouTube - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XRr1kaXKBsU 

ESA/Hubble. (n.d.). Hubblecast 90: The final frontier of the Frontier Fields. ESA/Hubble.  - https://ve42.co/Einstein1905

Agazie, G., et al. (2023). The NANOGrav 15 yr data set: Constraints on supermassive black hole binaries from the gravitational-wave background. - https://ve42.co/NANOGrav

Secrets of the Cosmic Microwave Background, PBS Spacetime via YouTube - https://ve42.co/PBSCMB

Wood, C. (2020). How Ancient Light Reveals the Universe's Contents. Quanta Magazine. - https://ve42.co/AncientLight

Collaboration (2014). Planck 2013 results. XVI. Cosmological parameters. A&A, 571, A16. - https://ve42.co/Planck2013

WMAP Science Team, NASA. (2014). Matter in the Universe. WMAP, NASA.  - https://ve42.co/WMAP2014

Shape of the universe, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/UniverseShape

Crocheting Hyperbolic Planes: Daina Taimina by Ted, via YouTube - https://ve42.co/Hyperbolic

Hyperbolic Crochet model - https://ve42.co/Crochet

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, Jesse Brandsoy, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mario Bottion, Max Maladino, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

▀▀▀
Directed by Casper Mebius
Written by Casper Mebius, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang and Derek Muller
Edited by Jack Saxon
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, and Mike Radjabov 
Illustrations by Jakub Misiek and Celia Bode
Filmed by Derek Muller
Produced by Casper Mebius, Derek Muller, and Han Evans

Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Pond5, and by courtesy of: NASA, NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA Goddard Flight Lab/ CI Lab, NASA’s WMAP science teams, ESO, and ESA/Hubble.
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ren Hurley

How One Line in the Oldest Math Text Hinted at Hidden Universes

IQ is supposed to measure intelligence, but does it? Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV 

▀▀▀
A huge thank you to Emeritus Professor Cecil R. Reynolds and Dr. Stuart J. Ritchie for their expertise and time.

Also a massive thank you to Prof. Steven Piantadosi and Prof. Alan S. Kaufman for helping us understand this complicated topic. As well as to Jay Zagrosky from Boston University's Questrom School of Business for providing data from his study.

▀▀▀
References:
Kaufman, A. S. (2009). IQ testing 101. Springer Publishing Company.

Reynolds, C. R., & Livingston, R. A. (2021). Mastering modern psychological testing. Springer International Publishing.

Ritchie, S. (2015). Intelligence: All that matters. John Murray.

Spearman, C. (1961). " General Intelligence" Objectively Determined and Measured. - https://ve42.co/Spearman1904 

Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1907). Le développement de l'intelligence chez les enfants. L'Année psychologique, 14(1), 1-94.. - https://ve42.co/Binet1907   

Intelligence Quotient, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/IQWiki 

Radiolab Presents: G. - https://ve42.co/RadioLabG 

McDaniel, M. A. (2005). Big-brained people are smarter: A meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence. Intelligence, 33(4), 337-346. - https://ve42.co/McDaniel2005 

Deary, I. J., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence, 35(1), 13-21. - https://ve42.co/Deary2007 

Lozano-Blasco, R., Quílez-Robres, A., Usán, P., Salavera, C., & Casanovas-López, R. (2022). Types of Intelligence and Academic Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Intelligence, 10(4), 123. - https://ve42.co/Blasco2022 

Kuncel, N. R., & Hezlett, S. A. (2010). Fact and fiction in cognitive ability testing for admissions and hiring decisions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 339-345. - https://ve42.co/Kuncel2010 

Laurence, J. H., & Ramsberger, P. F. (1991). Low-aptitude men in the military: Who profits, who pays?. Praeger Publishers. - https://ve42.co/Laurence1991 

Gregory, H. (2015). McNamara's Folly: The Use of Low-IQ Troops in the Vietnam War; Plus the Induction of Unfit Men, Criminals, and Misfits. Infinity Publishing.

Gottfredson, L. S., & Deary, I. J. (2004). Intelligence predicts health and longevity, but why?. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(1), 1-4. - https://ve42.co/Gottfredson2004 

Sanchez-Izquierdo, M., Fernandez-Ballesteros, R., Valeriano-Lorenzo, E. L., & Botella, J. (2023). Intelligence and life expectancy in late adulthood: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 98, 101738. - https://ve42.co/Izquierdo2023 

Zagorsky, J. L. (2007). Do you have to be smart to be rich? The impact of IQ on wealth, income and financial distress. Intelligence, 35(5), 489-501. - https://ve42.co/Zagorsky2007 

Strenze, T. (2007). Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal research. Intelligence, 35(5), 401-426. - https://ve42.co/Strenze2007 

Deary, I. J., Pattie, A., & Starr, J. M. (2013). The stability of intelligence from age 11 to age 90 years: the Lothian birth cohort of 1921. Psychological science, 24(12), 2361-2368. - https://ve42.co/Deary2013 

Flynn, J. R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure. Psychological bulletin, 101(2), 171. - https://ve42.co/Flynn1987 

Why our IQ levels are higher than our grandparents' | James Flynn, TED via YouTube -  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vpqilhW9uI 

Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., Lynam, D. R., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2011). Role of test motivation in intelligence testing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(19), 7716-7720. - https://ve42.co/Duckworth2011 

Kulik, J. A., Bangert-Drowns, R. L., & Kulik, C. L. C. (1984). Effectiveness of coaching for aptitude tests. Psychological Bulletin, 95(2), 179. - https://ve42.co/Kulik1984 

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Benedikt Heinen, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, MaxPal, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller, Casper Mebius, & Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver 
Filmed by Derek Muller, Han Evans, & Raquel Nuno
Animation by Fabio Albertelli & Ivy Tello
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Casper Mebius, & Han Evans

What Does IQ Actually Measure?

J. Robert Oppenheimer forever changed the course of history. He may be the most important physicist to have ever lived. Part of this video is sponsored by Wren. Offset your carbon footprint on Wren: ​https://www.wren.co/start/veritasium1 For the first 100 people who sign up, I will personally pay for the first month of your subscription!

If you want to learn more about Oppeheimer, I strongly recommend the book “American Prometheus” By Kai Bird and Martin Sherwin. It is a remarkable book, very much deserving of the Pulitzer prize it received.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

▀▀▀
A huge thank you to Dr. Martin Rohde and Dr. Antonia Denkova from the TU Delft for proofreading the script and providing valuable feedback.

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References:

Bird, K., & Sherwin, M. J. (2021). American Prometheus: the triumph and tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer. Atlantic Books.

Smith, A. K., & Weiner, C. (1980). Robert Oppenheimer: letters and recollections. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 36(5), 19-27. - https://ve42.co/Smith1980 

Combes, J. M., Duclos, P., & Seiler, R. (1981). The born-oppenheimer approximation. Rigorous atomic and molecular physics, 185-213. - https://ve42.co/Combes1981 

Rhodes, R. (2012). The making of the atomic bomb. Simon and Schuster.

Oppenheimer, J. R., & Volkoff, G. M. (1939). On massive neutron cores. Physical Review, 55(4), 374. - https://ve42.co/Oppenheimer1939b 

Oppenheimer, J. R. (1927). Bemerkung zur Zerstreuung der α-Teilchen. Zeitschrift für Physik, 43(5-6), 413-415. - https://ve42.co/Oppenheimer1927 

Oppenheimer, J. R. (1927). Zur quantenmechanik der richtungsentartung. Zeitschrift für Physik, 43(1-2), 27-46. - https://ve42.co/Oppenheimer1927b 

Born, M., & Oppenheimer, R. (1927). Zur Quantentheorie der Molekeln Annalen der Physik, v. 84. - https://ve42.co/Born1927 

Oppenheimer, J. R. (1928). Three notes on the quantum theory of aperiodic effects. Physical review, 31(1), 66.

Oppenheimer, J. R. (1928). On the quantum theory of the capture of electrons. Physical review, 31(3), 349.

Oppenheimer, J. R. (1931). Note on light quanta and the electromagnetic field. Physical Review, 38(4), 725.

Furry, W. H., & Oppenheimer, J. R. (1934). On the theory of the electron and positive. Physical Review, 45(4), 245. - https://ve42.co/Oppenheimer1934 

Oppenheimer, J. R. (1935). Note on charge and field fluctuations. Physical Review, 47(2), 144. - https://ve42.co/Oppenheimer1935 

Oppenheimer, J. R., & Snyder, H. (1939). On continued gravitational contraction. Physical Review, 56(5), 455. - https://ve42.co/Oppenheimer1939 

Oppenheimer, J. R., & Phillips, M. (1935). Note on the transmutation function for deuterons. Physical Review, 48(6), 500. - https://ve42.co/Oppenheimer1935b 

Malik, J. (1985). Yields of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear explosions (No. LA-8819). Los Alamos National Lab.(LANL), Los Alamos, NM (United States). - https://ve42.co/Malik1985 

Ignition of the atmosphere with nuclear bombs -- https://ve42.co/Konopinski46

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Benedikt Heinen, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Blake Byers, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

▀▀▀
Written by Petr Lebedev & Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver & Katrina Jackson
Filmed by Derek Muller
Animation by Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, & Mike Radjabov
Illustration by Jakub Misiek and Celia Bode
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound

Why Oppenheimer Deserves His Own Movie

This is the biggest, brightest, hottest video there is about the science of fireworks. This video is brought to you by Kiwico – go to https://kiwico.com/veritasium for your first month free!

If you're looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms - a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically: https://snatoms.com

Check out Gene’s channel here -- @PotatoJet 

Massive thanks to Mike Tockstein from Pyrotechnic Innovations @PyroInnovations  
and Will Scott from Las Vegas Display Fireworks Inc, for all your pyro knowledge and keeping us safe.

▀▀▀
Massive thanks to Gene Nagata from PotatoJet for filming this episode – check out his wonderful channel for more videos about cameras and FPV drones.

Thanks to Brandon Williams for helping with the chemistry and sourcing of materials. 

Thanks to Matthew Tosh for the help with the chemistry conversation about fireworks.

Thanks to Simon Werrett for the help with the history of fireworks.

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Werrett, S. (2010). Fireworks: pyrotechnic arts and sciences in European history. University of Chicago Press

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi.

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Ivy Tello and Fabio Albertelli
Filmed by Derek Muller, Hunter Peterson, Gene Nagata, Raquel Nuno
Production by Hunter Peterson and Stephanie Castillo
Additional video/photos supplied by Mike Tockstein/Pyrotechnic Innovations
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, & Casper Mebius

The Hidden Science of Fireworks

One of the most important, yet least understood, concepts in all of physics. Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

If you're looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms - a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically: https://snatoms.com

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A huge thank you to those who helped us understand different aspects of this complicated topic - Dr. Ashmeet Singh, Supriya Krishnamurthy, Dr. Jos Thijssen, Dr. Bijoy Bera, Dr. Timon Idema, Álvaro Bermejillo Seco and Dr. Misha Titov. 

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References:  
Carnot, S. (1824). Reflections on the motive power of heat: and on machines fitted to develop that power.  - https://ve42.co/Carnot1890 

Harnessing The True Power Of Atoms | Order And Disorder Documentaries, Spark via YouTube - https://ve42.co/OrderDisorder 

A better description of entropy, Steve Mould via YouTube -  https://ve42.co/Mould2016   

Dugdale, J. S. (1996). Entropy and its physical meaning. CRC Press. - https://ve42.co/Dugdale1996 

Schroeder, D. V. (1999). An introduction to thermal physics. - https://ve42.co/Schroeder2021 

Fowler, M. Heat Engines: the Carnot Cycle, University of Virginia. - https://ve42.co/Fowler2023  

Chandler, D.L. (2010). Explained: The Carnot Limit, MIT News -  https://ve42.co/Chandler2010 

Entropy, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/EntropyWiki 

Clausius, R. (1867). The mechanical theory of heat. Van Voorst. - https://ve42.co/Clausius1867 

What is entropy? TED-Ed via YouTube - https://ve42.co/Phillips2017 

Thijssen, J. (2018) Lecture Notes Statistical Physics, TU Delft.

Schneider, E. D., & Kay, J. J. (1994). Life as a manifestation of the second law of thermodynamics. Mathematical and computer modelling, 19(6-8), 25-48. - https://ve42.co/Schneider1994  

Lineweaver, C. H., & Egan, C. A. (2008). Life, gravity and the second law of thermodynamics. Physics of Life Reviews, 5(4), 225-242. - https://ve42.co/Lineweaver2008 

Michaelian, K. (2012). HESS Opinions" Biological catalysis of the hydrological cycle: life's thermodynamic function". Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 16(8), 2629-2645. - https://ve42.co/Michaelian2012 

England, J. L. (2013). Statistical physics of self-replication. The Journal of chemical physics, 139(12), 09B623_1. - https://ve42.co/England2013 

England, J. L. (2015). Dissipative adaptation in driven self-assembly. Nature nanotechnology, 10(11), 919-923. - https://ve42.co/England2015 

Wolchover, N. (2014). A New Physics Theory of Life, Quantamagazine  - https://ve42.co/Wolchover2014 

Lineweaver, C. H. (2013). The entropy of the universe and the maximum entropy production principle. In Beyond the Second Law: Entropy Production and Non-equilibrium Systems (pp. 415-427). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. - https://ve42.co/LineweaverEntropy 

Bekenstein, J.D. (1972). Black holes and the second law. Lett. Nuovo Cimento 4, 737–740. - https://ve42.co/Bekenstein1972 

Carroll, S.M. (2022). The Biggest Ideas in the Universe: Space, Time, and Motion. Penguin Publishing Group. - https://ve42.co/Carroll2022 

Black hole thermodynamics, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/BlackHoleTD  

Cosmology and the arrow of time: Sean Carroll at TEDxCaltech, TEDx Talks via YouTube - https://ve42.co/CarrollTEDx 

Carroll, S. M. (2008). The cosmic origins of time’s arrow. Scientific American, 298(6), 48-57. - https://ve42.co/Carroll2008 

The Passage of Time and the Meaning of Life | Sean Carroll (Talk + Q&A), Long Now Foundation via YouTube - https://ve42.co/CarrollLNF  

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi.

▀▀▀
Written by Casper Mebius, Derek Muller & Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver & Jamie MacLeod
Animated by Mike Radjabov, Ivy Tello, Fabio Albertelli and Jakub Misiek
Filmed by Derek Muller, Albert Leung & Raquel Nuno
Molecular collisions video by CSIRO's Data61 via YouTube: Simulation of air 
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Pond5 and by courtesy of NASA, NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA Goddard Flight Lab/ CI Lab, NASA/SDO and the AIA, EVE, HMI, and WMAP science teams. As well as the Advanced Visualization Laboratory at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications, B. Robertson, L. Hernquist
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, & Casper Mebius

The Most Misunderstood Concept in Physics

Go to our sponsor https://betterhelp.com/veritasium to get matched with a professional therapist who will listen and help.

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Huge thanks to the Australian Reptile Park for having us over to film – special thanks to Jake Meney for showing us the spiders and Caitlin Vine for organizing the shoot. https://www.reptilepark.com.au

Huge thanks to Dr Timothy Jackson with his help and answering our questions. 

Thanks to Seqirus Australia for providing B-roll footage of the antivenom production process. 


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References:

Pineda, S. S., Sollod, B. L., Wilson, D., Darling, A., Sunagar, K., Undheim, E. A., ... & King, G. F. (2014). Diversification of a single ancestral gene into a successful toxin superfamily in highly venomous Australian funnel-web spiders. BMC genomics, 15(1), 1-16 - https://ve42.co/Pineda2014

Isbister, G. K., Gray, M. R., Balit, C. R., Raven, R. J., Stokes, B. J., Porges, K., ... & Fisher, M. M. (2005). Funnel-web spider bite: a systematic review of recorded clinical cases. Medical journal of Australia, 182(8), 407-411 - https://ve42.co/Isbister2005

Herzig, V., Sunagar, K., Wilson, D. T., Pineda, S. S., Israel, M. R., Dutertre, S., ... & Fry, B. G. (2020). Australian funnel-web spiders evolved human-lethal δ-hexatoxins for defense against vertebrate predators. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(40), 24920-24928 - https://ve42.co/Herzig2020

Nicholson, G. M., & Graudins, A. (2002). Spiders of medical importance in the Asia–Pacific: Atracotoxin, latrotoxin and related spider neurotoxins. Clinical and experimental pharmacology and physiology, 29(9), 785-794 - https://ve42.co/Nicholson2002

Fletcher, J. I., Chapman, B. E., Mackay, J. P., Howden, M. E., & King, G. F. (1997). The structure of versutoxin (δ-atracotoxin-Hv1) provides insights into the binding of site 3 neurotoxins to the voltage-gated sodium channel. Structure, 5(11), 1525-1535 - https://ve42.co/Fletcher1997

Australian Reptile Park. (2022). Snake and Spider First Aid - https://ve42.co/ARPFirstAid

The Australian Museum. (20 ). Spider facts - https://ve42.co/SpiderFacts


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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Orlando Bassotto, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, and Sam Lutfi


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Written by Katie Barnshaw & Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller and Jason Tran
Animation by Ivy Tello, Jakub Misiek and Fabio Albertelli
Neuron animation by Reciprocal Space – https://www.reciprocal.space
Additional video/photos supplied from Getty Images, Pond5
B-roll supplied by Seqirus Australia 
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang & Katie Barnshaw

How To Get Venom From The World's Deadliest Spider

There's a strange number system, featured in the work of a dozen Fields Medalists, that helps solve problems that are intractable with real numbers.  Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

If you're looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms - a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically: https://snatoms.com

▀▀▀
References:  

Koblitz, N. (2012). p-adic Numbers, p-adic Analysis, and Zeta-Functions (Vol. 58). Springer Science & Business Media.

Amazing intro to p-adic numbers here: https://youtu.be/3gyHKCDq1YA
Excellent series on p-adic numbers: https://youtu.be/VTtBDSWR1Ac
Great videos by James Tanton: @JamesTantonMath 

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi.

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller and Alex Kontorovich 
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animated by Mike Radjabov, Ivy Tello, Fabio Albertelli and Jakub Misiek
Filmed by Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, & Emily Zhang

Elite Mathematicians Use Numbers Differently From The Rest of Us

Concrete = cement + sand + gravel. Cement is the most important man-made material on Earth. Offset your carbon footprint on Wren: https://wren.co/veritasium . For the first 100 people who sign up, I will personally pay for the first month of your subscription!

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A huge thank you to Nevada Ready Mix for being willing to bury me in concrete, especially Elu Chavez and Mike Sherwood. https://www.nevadareadymix.com

And to Brandon Birchak of Six Foot Productions for providing the big fish bowl, safety equipment, planning and filming: https://www.sixfootcreations.com

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References:  
Instant stone (just add water), Roots of Progress, https://rootsofprogress.org/instant-stone-just-add-water
https://rootsofprogress.org/cement-redux

Cement Chemistry and Sustainable Cementitious Materials
https://www.youtube.com/@cementchemistryandsustaina9629

Ahmad, S., Lawan, A., & Al-Osta, M. (2020). Effect of sugar dosage on setting time, microstructure and strength of Type I and Type V Portland cements. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 13, e00364. – https://ve42.co/Ahmad2020

Seymour, L. M., Maragh, J., Sabatini, P., Di Tommaso, M., Weaver, J. C., & Masic, A. (2023). Hot mixing: Mechanistic insights into the durability of ancient Roman concrete. Science advances, 9(1), eadd1602. --  https://ve42.co/Seymour2023

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Emil Abu Milad, Tj Steyn, meg noah, Bernard McGee, KeyWestr, Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, John H. Austin, Jr., Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Juan Benet, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi.

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Raquel Nuno, Austin Bradley and Bryson
Animated by Ivy Tello & Mike Radjabov
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman: the Bill Wurtz inspired ‘Skyscrapers are made of sea shells’
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, & Emily Zhang

Getting Buried In Concrete To Explain How It Works

An engineer came up with a plan to drop tungsten telephone poles from space - the idea has been seriously considered on multiple occasions, so we tested it. Head to https://brilliant.org/Veritasium to start your free trial. The first 200 will get 20% off Brilliant's annual premium subscription.

Massive thanks to Archisand for building such a beautiful sandcastle. https://www.youtube.com/@GregLeBon

Huge thanks to John and Angie Miller for helping us with securing the shooting location and going above and beyond to make this shoot happen – http://highdesertlocations.com/

Thanks to Inland Empire Film Services and the San Bernardino County Film Office for portions of the video shot in the County of San Bernardino.

Massive thanks to Dr David Wright for the interview and providing invaluable guidance during the research for this video.

Here’s a great video about space-based missile defense – https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/space-based-missile-defense-not-good-idea

Massive thanks to Adam Savage for being part of this video.

Additional photos from NASA and ESA.

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References:
USAF. (2003). The US Air Force transformation flight plan.

Preston, R., Johnson, D. J., Edwards, S. J., Miller, M. D., & Shipbaugh, C. (2002). Space weapons earth wars. Rand Corporation.

Wright, D., Grego, L., & Gronlund, L. (2005). The physics of space security. A Reference Manual, Cambridge.

DeBlois, B. M., Garwin, R. L., Kemp, R. S., & Marwell, J. C. (2004). Space weapons: crossing the US Rubicon. International Security, 50-84.

Baucom, D. R. (2017). The Rise and Fall of Brilliant Pebbles 1. In United States Military History 1865 to the Present Day (pp. 329-376). Routledge.

Hitchens, T., & Samson, V. (2004). Space-based interceptors: still not a good idea. Georgetown journal of international affairs, 21-29.

National Research Council. (2012). Making sense of ballistic missile defense: An assessment of concepts and systems for US boost-phase missile defense in comparison to other alternatives. National Academies Press.

Borger, J. (2005). Bush likely to back weapons in space. The Guardian, 19.

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Special thanks to: Bernard McGee, James Sanger, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi

▀▀▀
Written by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller, and Emily Zhang
Filmed by Trenton Oliver, Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, Raquel Nuno, and Eddie Lopez
Animation by Mike Radjabov, Fabio Albertelli, and Jonny Hyman
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Slow Motion Camera: Shawn Sanders and Anthony Corrales
Sandcastle Timelapse by Greg LeBon and Archisand
Phantom rental from Panny Hire LA
Helicopter Pilots: Rick Shuster and Cliff Fleming
Helicopter Safety Officer: Ryan Hosking
FPV Drone Pilots: Sammie Saing and Josh Ewalt
Production Assistants: Roman Bacvic and Eddie Lopez
Intern: Katie Barnshaw
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

Testing the US Military’s Worst Idea

This is an image of the supermassive black hole, Sagittarius A*, at the center of our Milky Way galaxy.
Visit https://www.kiwico.com/veritasium30 to get 30% off your first month of any crate!

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Image of Sgr A* from EHT collaboration
Event Horizon Telescope collaboration: https://ve42.co/EHT

Animations from The Relativistic Astrophysics group, Institute for Theoretical Physics,  Goethe-Universität Frankfurt. Massive thanks to Prof. Luciano Rezzolla, Dr Christian Fromm and Dr Alejandro Cruz-Osorio.

A huge thanks to Prof. Peter Tuthill and Dr Manisha Caleb for feedback on earlier versions of this video and helping explain VLBI.

Great video by Thatcher Chamberlin about VLBI here – https://youtu.be/Y8rAHTvpJbk

Animations and simulations with English text:
L. R. Weih & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
https://youtu.be/jvftAadCFRI

Video of stars going around Sgr A* from European Southern Observatory
https://www.eso.org/public/videos/eso1825e/

Video zooming into the center of our galaxy from European Southern Observatory
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dXAU0gzsPOw

Video of observation of M87 courtesy of:
C. M. Fromm, Y. Mizuno & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
https://youtu.be/meOKmzhTcIY

Video of observation of SgrA* courtesy of
C. M. Fromm, Y. Mizuno & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
Z. Younsi (University College London)
https://youtu.be/VnsZj9RvhFU

Video of telescopes in the array 2017:
C. M. Fromm & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
https://youtu.be/Ame7fzBuFnk

Animations and simulations (no text):
L. R. Weih & L. Rezzolla (Goethe University Frankfurt)
https://youtu.be/XmvpKFSvB7A


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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Inconcision, Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

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Written by Derek Muller
Animation by Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, Maria Raykova
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Filmed by Petr Lebedev

How did they actually take this picture? (Very Long Baseline Interferometry)

A general solution to the cubic equation was long considered impossible, until we gave up the requirement that math reflect reality. This video is sponsored by Brilliant. The first 200 people to sign up via https://brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription.

Thanks to Dr Amir Alexander, Dr Alexander Kontorovich, Dr Chris Ferrie, and Dr Adam Becker for the helpful advice and feedback on the earlier versions of the script. 

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References:
Some great videos about the cubic:

500 years of not teaching the cubic formula. -- https://youtu.be/N-KXStupwsc

Imaginary Numbers are Real -- https://youtu.be/T647CGsuOVU

Dunham, W. (1990). Journey through genius: The great theorems of mathematics. New York. -- https://ve42.co/Dunham90

Toscano, F. (2020). The Secret Formula. Princeton University Press. -- https://ve42.co/Toscano2020

Bochner, S. (1963). The significance of some basic mathematical conceptions for physics. Isis, 54(2), 179-205. -- https://ve42.co/Bochner63

Muroi, K. (2019). Cubic equations of Babylonian mathematics. arXiv preprint arXiv:1905.08034. -- https://ve42.co/Murio21

Branson, W. Solving the cubic with Cardano, -- https://ve42.co/Branson2014

Rothman, T. (2013). Cardano v Tartaglia: The Great Feud Goes Supernatural. arXiv preprint arXiv:1308.2181. -- https://ve42.co/Rothman

Vali Siadat, M., & Tholen, A. (2021). Omar Khayyam: Geometric Algebra and Cubic Equations. Math Horizons, 28(1), 12-15. -- https://ve42.co/Siadat21

Merino, O. (2006). A short history of complex numbers. University of Rhode Island. -- https://ve42.co/Merino2006

Cardano, G (1545), Ars magna or The Rules of Algebra, Dover (published 1993), ISBN 0-486-67811-3

Bombelli, R (1579) L’Algebra https://ve42.co/Bombelli

The Manim Community Developers. (2021). Manim – Mathematical Animation Framework (Version v0.13.1) [Computer software]. https://www.manim.community/

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Luis Felipe, Anton Ragin, Paul Peijzel, S S, Benedikt Heinen, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Sam Lutfi, MJP, Gnare, Nick DiCandilo, Dave Kircher, Edward Larsen, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Mike Tung, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Ismail Öncü Usta, Crated Comments, Anna, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, Oleksii Leonov, Jim Osmun, Tyson McDowell, Ludovic Robillard, Jim buckmaster, fanime96, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Vincent, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Alfred Wallace, Arjun Chakroborty, Joar Wandborg, Clayton Greenwell, Pindex, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson,Ron Neal 

Executive Producer: Derek Muller
Writers: Derek Muller, Alex Kontorovich, Stephen Welch, Petr Lebedev
Animators: Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Ivy Tello, Jesús Rascón
SFX: Shaun Clifford
Camerapeople: Derek Muller, Emily Zhang
Editors: Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev
Producers: Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang
Additional video supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound and Jonny Hyman

How Imaginary Numbers Were Invented

Bowling has been reinvented many times over the past seven thousand years but especially in the last 30. This is the fascinating physics of balls, oil, lane and pins. A portion of this video was sponsored by Salesforce. Go to https://salesforce.com/veritasium to learn more.

Huge thanks to Steve Kloempken and all of Storm Bowling for letting us visit and get a glimpse into the crazy world of bowling.
Huge thanks to legends Chris Barnes and Pete Weber for taking the time to bowl with us.
Huge thanks to Creative Electron for their help with getting the bowling balls X-rayed. Check out their work here: https://creativeelectron.com/
Thanks to Ron Hatfield and James Freeman for their help with research. Check out their great book, Bowling Beyond the Basics: https://ve42.co/HatfieldFreeman
Thanks to the United States Bowling Congress (USBC) and Professional Bowlers Association (PBA) for their help with accessing archival data and footage.
Special thanks to Rod Cross for physics consultation.
Thanks to Bill Guszczo for giving us the idea to make this video in the first place.

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References:
Freeman, James, and Ron Hatfield. Bowling beyond the Basics: What's Really Happening on the Lanes, and What You Can Do about It. BowlSmart, 2018. -- https://ve42.co/HatfieldFreeman
N. Stremmel, P. Ridenour and S. Sterbenz. “Identifying the Critical Factors That Contribute to Bowling Ball Motion on a Bowling Lane.” United States Bowling Congress, 2008. -- https://ve42.co/BallMotionASQ
USBC Equipment Specifications and Certification Team. “Ball Motion Study: Phase I and II Final Report.” United States Bowling Congress, 2008. -- https://ve42.co/USBCBallMotion
Brettingen, Patrick, and Nicki Mours. “USBC static weight limits remain relevant.” United States Bowling Congress, 2011. -- https://ve42.co/USBCStaticWeight
Article on lane oil origins -- https://ve42.co/OilOrigins
Luna, Richard. “Bruce Pluckhahn says there's a little bit of bowling…” United Press International Archives, 1984. -- https://ve42.co/BowlingHistory
Johnson, Brody D. “The Physics of Bowling: How good bowlers stay off the straight and narrow.” St. Louis University. -- https://ve42.co/JohnsonPhysicsPpt
Talamo, Jim. “The Physics of Bowling Balls.” -- https://ve42.co/TalamoPhysicsPpt
Thompson, Ted. “Breakdown and Carrydown - Then and Now.” Kegel. 2012. -- https://ve42.co/ThompsonKegel
Frohlich, Cliff. “What Makes Bowling Balls Hook?” American Journal of Physics, vol. 72, no. 9, 2004, pp. 1170–1177., https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1767099. -- https://ve42.co/FrohlichHook
Article on bowling’s ranking in participatory sports -- https://ve42.co/BowlingRank
Speranza, Dan, and Dave Nestor. “Initial Oil Absorption Results.” United States Bowling Congress, 2016. -- https://ve42.co/USBCOilAbsorption
D. Benner, N. Mours, and P. Ridenour. “Pin Carry Study: Bowl Expo 2009.” United States Bowling Congress, 2009. -- https://ve42.co/USBCPinCarry
Hopkins, D. C., and J. D. Patterson. “Bowling Frames: Paths of a Bowling Ball.” American Journal of Physics, vol. 45, no. 3, 1977, pp. 263–266., https://doi.org/10.1119/1.11005. -- https://ve42.co/HopkinsPath
Normani, Franco. “The Physics of Bowling.” Real World Physics Problems. -- https://ve42.co/NormaniPhysics
Horaczek, Stan. “The insides of pro bowling balls will make your head spin.” Popular Science, 2020. -- https://ve42.co/HoraczekSpin
House shot oil pattern -- https://ve42.co/HouseOil. Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 4.0.

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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Andrew, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Nick DiCandilo, Dave Kircher, Edward Larsen, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, Big Badaboom, Ludovic Robillard, Jim buckmaster, fanime96, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Alfred Wallace, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal 

Written by Derek Muller and Emily Zhang
Animations by Mike Radjabov and Ivy Tello
Filmed by Derek Muller, Trenton Oliver, and Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
SFX by Shaun Clifford
Additional video supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sounds
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

How Hidden Technology Transformed Bowling

The General Theory of Relativity tells us gravity is not a force, gravitational fields don't exist. Objects tend to move on straight paths through curved spacetime. Thanks to Caséta by Lutron for sponsoring this video. Find out more at: https://www.lutron.com/veritasium

Huge thanks to Prof. Geraint Lewis for hours of consulting on this video so I could get these ideas straight in my own brain. Check out his YouTube channel: https://ve42.co/gfl or his books: https://ve42.co/GFLbooks

Amazing VFX, compositing, and editing by Jonny Hyman
2D animations by Ivy Tello
Filmed by Steven Warren and Raquel Nuno
Special thanks to Petr Lebedev for reviews and script consultation
Music by Jonny Hyman and from Epidemic Sound https://epidemicsound.com

Rocket made by Goodnight and Co.
Screen images in rocket by Geoff Barrett

Slow motion rocket exhaust footage from Joe Barnard at BPS.Space
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCILl8ozWuxnFYXIe2svjHhg

Why Gravity is NOT a Force

Why does shaken soda explode? Does ice melt first in fresh or salt water?
Thank you Squarespace for sponsoring this video. Go to https://squarespace.com to save 10% off your first purchase of a website or domain using code: VERITASIUM

This video features experiments that have been shown to me by science teachers over the years. Does ice melt fast in salt water or fresh water was an experiment introduced to me at the Utah Science Teachers' conference. The ring of metal over a chain demo came from a teachers event in Florida. The idea shaking a carbonated drink increases pressure came from an email.

Special thanks to Petr Lebedev for building the pressure gauge.

Links to literature are below:
Victims of the pop bottle, by Ted Willhoft. New Scientist, 21 August 1986 p.28

Carbonation speculation
The Physics Teacher 30, 173 (1992); https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2343501

Agitation solution
The Physics Teacher 30, 325 (1992); https://doi.org/10.1119/1.2343556

Filmed by Cristian Carretero, Jordan Schnabel, Jonny Hyman, and Raquel Nuno

Music from https://epidemicsound.com "Seaweed" "Quietly Tense" "Mind Shift" "Observations"

3 Perplexing Physics Problems

How much would it take for you to risk $10?
Check out Audible: http://bit.ly/AudibleVe
Can you solve this? http://bit.ly/248Ve
Regression to the mean: http://bit.ly/VeRTTM

Help translate Veritasium videos into other languages: http://veritasium.subtitl.us

Psychological literature shows that we are more sensitive to small losses and than small gains, with most people valuing a loss around 1.5-2.5 times as much as a gain. This means that we often turn down reasonable opportunities for fear of the loss. However over the course of our lives we will be exposed to many risks and opportunities and this invariably means that taking every small reasonable bet will leave us better off than saying no to all of them.

NOTE: The video is not saying to accept every bet, only those with reasonable odds (preferably in your favour), and those which if you lose would not cause significant financial or other damage. In those cases it is wise to be loss averse!

Filmed by Adrian Tan

Thanks to Physics Girl for suggestions on previous versions of this video. https://www.youtube.com/physicswoman

Veritasium Transcript on Youtube